Monday, February 2, 2009

Strengths and weakness of methods or approaches for conflicts resolutions or bringing peace at the international and local levels.

I.0 Introduction:
Conflict occurs between people in all kinds of human relationships and in all social settings.Because of the wide range of potential differences among people, the absence of conflict usually signals the absence of meaningful interaction. Conflict by itself is neither good nor bad.
However, the manner in which conflict is handled determines whether it is constructive or destructive (Deutsch & Coleman, 2000).
Africa continued to be the region with the greatest number of conflicts. These internal conflicts pose a serious threat to economic development, especially for the poor African community members.
Empirical evidence has shown that conflicts can tear down levels of economic development that took decades to achieve. Also, for a long time after their termination the spin-offs of conflicts continue to limit economic growth, political, social, inequalities between groups.
Eight out of 10 of the Africa poorest countries are suffering, or have recently suffered, from large scale violent conflict. Wars in Africa countries have heavy human, economic, and social costs and are a major cause of poverty and under development. For example, it is estimated that 3% of the country's 1990 population is in most current conflicts, such as in the Sudan and the Congo. In short in the past 30 years Africa has been especially badly affected by war.
Conflict has the potential for either a great deal of destruction or much creativity and positive social change (Kriesberg, 1998). Therefore, it is essential to understand the basic processes of conflict so that we can work to maximize productive outcomes and find resolution to the destructive ones.
It is the intention of this paper to examine critically the strengths and weakness of different approaches for conflict resolution or bringing peace at the international and local levels. The paper is divided into four sections: The first section will dwell on the definition of conflict and conflict solution; second section will highlight the root causes of conflict; third section will discuss on methods and approaches on conflict resolution by sighting it strengths and weaknesses and finally recommendation and conclusion.
2.0 DEFINITION AND THEORY RELATED TO THE CONCEPT CONFLICT:
Various scholars have attempted to define conflict in different perspectives. Among them is (Fisher, 1990). Who defined conflict as an incompatibility of goals or values between two or more parties in a relationship, combined with attempts to control each other and antagonistic feelings towards each other. Another scholar is Harry Webne-Behrman, (1999) defined conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a threat to their needs, interests or concerns. A conflict is more than a mere disagreement - it is a situation in which people perceive a threat (physical, emotional, power, status, etc.) to their well-being. As such, it is a meaningful experience in people's lives, not to be shrugged off by a mere, "it will pass. Participants in conflicts tend to respond on the basis of their perceptions of the situation, rather than an objective review of it. As such, people filter their perceptions and reactions through their values, culture, beliefs, information, experience, gender, and other variables. Conflict responses are both filled with ideas and feelings that can be very strong and powerful guides to our sense of possible solutions.
According Galtung (1996) conflict could be viewed as a triangle with structure, attitudes, and behavior as its vertices. By structure, he means the conflict situation, the parties, and the conflict of interest among them. Conflict arises where the parties come to have incompatible interests, values or goals. He uses the term attitudes to refer to the tendency for the parties to see conflict from their own point of view, to identify with own side, and to diminish the concerns of others. Behaviors include gestures and communications, which can convey either a hostile or a conciliatory intent.
In addition, conflict occurs when two or more parties perceive that their interests are incompatible, express hostile attitudes, or take pursue their interests through actions that damage the other parties. These parties may be individuals, small or large groups, and countries, Interests can diverge in many ways: In another way conflict is generally defined as an interaction between interdependent people who perceive incompatible goals and who expect interference from the other party if they attempt to achieve their goal.
On the other hand Conflict resolution can be defined as a range of processes aimed at alleviating or eliminating sources of conflict. The term "conflict resolution" is sometimes used interchangeably with the term dispute resolution or alternative dispute resolution. Processes of conflict resolution generally include negotiation, mediation and diplomacy. The processes of arbitration, litigation, and formal complaint processes such as ombudsman processes, are usually described with the term dispute resolution, although some refer to them as "conflict resolution." Processes of mediation and arbitration are often referred to as alternative dispute resolution.
3.0 Major causes of conflict:
Major conflict causes include political, economic, and social inequalities; extreme poverty; economic stagnation; poor government services; high unemployment; environmental degradation; and individual (economic) incentives to fight. For further clarifications these causes of conflict can be elaborated as follows:
• Group motivation: Since intra-state wars mainly consist of fighting between groups, group motives, resentments, and ambitions provide motivation for war. Groups may be divided along cultural or religious lines, by geography, or by class. Group differences only become worth fighting for, however, if there are other important differences between groups, particularly in the distribution. In addition to that political leaders and belligerents in Africa have made increasing use of ethnic hatred. Such abuse prolongs conflict, creates long term divisions that reduce the effectiveness of peace building efforts. For example conflict in Sudan with people in the south being heavily deprived by the northern part of Sudan which is dominated by ethnic group of Arabs and Islamic have been fighting due to ethnic, cultural religious and economic factors.
• Inequality among community members:
Inequality between groups is probably the foremost cause of conflict in Africa and other parts in the world. It is inequality between groups- rather than individuals-that increases the prospects of violent conflict; unemployment, lack of education and population pressure this is mostly in countries with high level of unemployment among men and where male educational levels are low face a far higher risk of conflict. Throughout Africa, factional conflict has drawn on a pool of marginalized or socially excluded young men, for example, the conflict in Liberia was fought by socially marginalized young men
• The artificial boundaries created by colonial rulers as they ruled and finally left Africa had the effect of bringing together many different ethnic people within a nation that did not reflect, nor have the ability to accommodate or provide for, the cultural and ethnic diversity in such a short period of time. The freedom from imperial powers was, and is still, not a smooth transition. The natural struggle to rebuild is proving difficult. For example, the war between Uganda and Tanzania in 1998 to 1999 can be sighted as an example where Idd Amin claimed part of Kagera to belong to Uganda.
• Failure of the social contract This derives from the view that social stability is based on a hypothetical social contract between the people and the government. People accept state authority so long as the state delivers services and provides reasonable economic conditions employment and incomes. This has been experienced in Congo, Liberia and sierra Leon and also in Tanzania in areas where mining is taking place Buzwagi, Tarime etc there is a lot of conflict between the local people and the mini companies as locals do not benefit anything from the mine
• Land disputes in communities: This point to environmental degradation as a source of poverty and cause of conflict. For example, rising population pressure and falling agricultural productivity may lead to land disputes. Growing scarcity of water may provoke conflict. A case of Masai pastoralists and Farmers in Kilosa
• Economic reform programs policies: The standard SAP policy package calls for cuts in government spending, privatization of state owned enterprises and the opening up of the economies of developing countries to foreign investment. After almost two decades of “adjustment” in Africa, the result has been raising income and wealth inequality with more and more populations being pushed below the poverty line. Among other conditions, SAP policies advocate: Privatization – SAP policies call for privatization of state owned enterprises to private owners, often foreign investors. Privatization is typically associated with layoffs and pay cuts for workers in the privatized enterprises; Cut in government spending – Reductions in government spending frequently reduce the services available to the poor, including health and education services, as well as farm subsidies; Imposition of user fees – Many IMF and World Bank loans call for the imposition of “user fees” – charges for the use of government-provided services like schools, health clinics and clean drinking water. For very poor people, even modest charges may result in denial of access to services. Under SAP, countries undertake a variety of measures to promote exports, at the expense of production for domestic needs. In the rural sector, the export orientation is often associated with the displacement of poor people who grow food for their own consumption, as their land is taken over by large plantations growing crops for foreign markets; Trade Liberalization – The elimination of tariff protections for industries in developing countries often leads to mass layoffs. In Mozambique, for example, the IMF and World Bank ordered the removal of an export tax on cashew nuts. The result: 10,000 adults, mostly women, lost their jobs in cashew nut-processing factories. Most of the processing work shifted to India, where child laborers shell nuts at home. There is little doubt that the impact of some of these measures has had a profound effect on the provision of basic social services to the poor who are always at the receiving end of some these policies.


4.0 Approaches and methods for conflict resolutions:
Regardless of the level of conflict, there are different methods/ approaches to deal with conflict that exist. Conflict can result in destructive outcomes or creative ones depending on the approach that is taken. If conflict can be managed creatively there is possibility of finding solutions that are mutually satisfactory to both parties. Sometimes this will involve distribution of resources or power that is more equitable than before. All in there is no universal conflict resolution that can work on all forms of conflicts resolutions. Some of the conflict resolutions as follow:
4.1 International approach:
This is the approach that is supported by the United Nations Security council whereby one government is assigned to negotiate on behalf of other countries to facilitate the process of finding solution to the conflicting sides in the country
Strength: The approach United Security council fund the conflict resolution process
Limitation: The approach is that the country responsible for conflict resolution can not be familiar with the culture and traditions of the country in conflict take a case whereby United State of America and Britain both countries are working to bring peace in Afghanistan and Iran. However it has taken years to bring peace in these countries due to the fact have a quite different culture and belief from that of Islamic and Arabic. USA and Britain are dominated by Christianity. Instead of working on conflict resolution they are busy with influencing there culture which definitely the opposing group will not buy in what the Americans and British are trying to suggest for the conflicting sides,
4.2 International laws: These are laws that have been stipulated put in place by the United Nation Security Council those guid nations not to cause problems to other countries. For example it is prohibited one Nation Army cross beyond its country boundaries. The laws stipulate the penalty that if such a Nation enters other country by force will be obliged to pay all damages that might occur during the war. A case of Uganda through Idd Amin regime he evaded Tanzania. After the war Uganda was penalized to pay Tanzania a certain amount of money as penalty for evading Tanzania.
The Strengths: The approach allows for uniform regulation and penalty for the whole world
Limitation: Big Nations like United Sates of America do not abide to these rules a case of Vietnam, Iran and Afghanistan where by United States of America evaded those countries using their army to remove the governments in power by force and replacing with governments that buy in their policies and ideologies.
4.3. Regional Integration: This is where region organs like SADC, Africa Union, ECOWAS, and Great Lakes are used to protect the region and work on conflict resolution in conflicting countries in the region. This is taking place for Zimbabwe case whereby SADC is in upper front trying to facilitate the post election conflict resolution. Africa Union under the chairmanship of President Kikwete in collaboration with the former UN Secretary Kofi Annan also played a role of conflict resolution for Kenya post election and other conflicting countries
Strength: The approach is that Regional International are in a better position to bring conflict resolution compared to that of the international one as they belong to the same region such that they more familiar with the issues , culture in the conflicting countries
Limitations: limited resources for managing the conflict resolution mission being at the level of funding negotiation meeting and peace keeping troops as most of the nations that forms the Africa regional forums are faced a problem of poverty within their countries such that most of the countries fails to contribute to the regional forums.
Secondly is the acceptability of the region forums by the conflicting countries. Take a case of Zimbabwe President Mugabe was not ready to respect the late SADC chairperson President Mwanawasa of Zambia
Thirdly not all Nations belong to the same Regional Network such that they will not abide to some of the conflict resolutions suggested by certain regional network
4.4: Balance of power through the use of army whereby the fighting groups are withdrawn their weapons by the peace keeping troops or through negotiation of sharing powers a case of Kenya whereby the opposing parties shared powers by President Mwai Kibaki from the ruling part take on the Presidential position and the opposition party Raila Odinga takes the Prime Minister position.
Strength: The approach facilitate more democracy in sharing the power all parties are responsible to the people there is no way that one party can point a figure to the other as both of them are in the government.
Limitation: Negotiations can take long while people are suffering a practical example is that of Zimbabwe where by President Mugabe up to date is not ready to share powers with the opposition party such that people are suffering and dying on hunger and diseases.
4.5: Third party: Through diplomatic or embassy offices or influential and prominent people. A case of Burundi, whereby the late Mwalimu Nyerere; For Kenya Koffi Annan, Ex President Benjamin Mkapa and Gracie Marchel facilitated the post election conflicts and recently Obassanjo is continuing with negotiation in Congo DRC
Strength: The third part is knowledgeable and is acknowledged through their experience with the situation prevailing in the conflict countries such that they can be able to bring the conflict resolution
Limitation: The third parts need to be knowledgeable, experienced and accepted by both conflicting parties
4.6 Traditional or Africa approach: This approach is the opposite to that of the international one whereby there is a use of force and commands that does not work in Africa culture. Africa context believe that before intervention there is a need of dialogue and working with attitude, mind setting and behavior change of the conflicting sides. The use of third part, elderly and traditional leaders is highly appreciated in Africa tradition approach. The practical example is the process of trying to change the attitude of Tutsi who are in conflict with the Hutu. The Tutsi believe that they are born to rule therefore they would like to rule the Hutu for ever which is not fact. Not only that are but also now are trying to put their dominance or leadership to all countries in the great lake region. These include Museveni in Uganda, Nkunda in DRC and Paul Kagame of Rwanda. The introduction of English use from French, use of Swahili as a National language This will help to unite people and remove the French legacy that contributed to the conflict.
Strength: By changing the attitude, mind set and behavior of the conflicting side is more sustainable one like the Masai now are changing their attitude on cows which originally they believed all cows belonged to them such that they used to cause conflict by steeling the Sukuma cows with the notion that all cows belong to them. Following awareness and attending education and change of profession from pure pastoralists to others now Masai have changed their attitude and mind set on cows and the conflict between them and Sukuma occur in few cases or no more happening.
Limitation: The approach takes long time to change the attitude of people, take a case of the Tutsi and Masai it has taken decades and still some elements of their attitudes still prevails among them. In addition the traditional approach depend much on third part which requires somebody with more thinking, spiritual belief, psychology and understanding of the issues. These people with this experience are few. The few to mention can include. Late Mwalimu Nyerere, Nelson Mandela, Kofi Annan
In addition to those conflict resolution approaches other literature proposes the following approaches:
Firstly, the win-lose approach: People learn the behavior of destructive conflict early in life- competition, dominance; aggression and defense permeate many of our social relationships from the family to the school playground. The “fixed pie” assumption is made, often incorrectly, that what one party gains, the other loses. The strategy is thus to force the other side to capitulate. Sometimes, this is done through socially acceptable mechanisms such as majority vote, the authority of the leader, or the determination of a judge. Sometimes, it involves secret strategies, threat, innuendo – what ever is acceptable, i.e. the ends justify the means.
Secondly, lose-lose approach: This strategy is exemplified by smoothing over conflict or by reaching the simplest of compromises. In neither case is the creative potential of productive conflict resolution realized or explored. Disagreement is seen as inevitable, so therefore why not split the difference or smooth over difficulties in as painless a way as possible. Sometimes, this is indeed the reality of the situation, and the costs are less than in the win-lose approach, at least for the loser. Each party gets some of what it wants, and resigns itself to partial satisfaction.
Thirdly, the win-win approach: This is a conscious and systematic attempt to maximize the goals of both parties through collaborative problem solving. The conflict is seen as a problem to be solved rather than a war to be won. This method focuses on the needs and constraints of both parties rather than emphasizing strategies designed to conquer. Full problem definition and analysis and development of alternatives precede consensus decisions on mutually agreeable solutions. Communication is open and direct rather than secretive and calculating. The win-win approach requires a very high degree of patience and skill in human relations and problem solving.
All in all as discussed above both approaches have strength and challenges. The challenges includes: Honest in political negations; Some of the leaders are puppets; Power monger leaders; un-fair process; failing to attack the real problem; Communication break down;


Conclusion and recommendation:
Conflict is an investable fact of human existence. If we work to understand and manage it effectively, we can improve both the satisfaction and productivity of the community social relationships. Therefore the paper recommends the following:
• Resolution should be based on traditional conflict resolution methods.
• Local leaders should be key players in resolving conflict.
• Technical and socio-economic studies should be complemented with traditional approaches and knowledge.
• It is essential to consider different interests.
All in all there is no one conflict resolution approach or method that can fit every occasion. Conflict may be on any scale from an individual to entire states and no one can be an expert on all forms of conflict resolutions. What is required is to understand the issue and make positive contribution to conflict resolution.








Reference:
1. ANYANWU JOHN C,( Issue Four, April 2004) ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL CAUSES OF CIVIL WARS IN AFRICA: SOME ECONOMETRIC RESULTS
2. Harry Webne-Behrman, (1999) the Practice of Facilitation 1998).
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4. Galtung (1996)
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13. http://wwwbmj.com sihted on 2nd January 2009
14. Wangoola, ‘Cattle Rusting and Conflicts in N.E Uganda

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